Background of electronic measurement on skin
Chang Lin Zhang
College of Life Science,
Zhejiang University,
Hangzhou, China
Department of Music and Music Education,
Siegen University,
Siegen, Hochstrasse 57,
Siegen D-57076, Germany
E-mail: zhang.biophysik@musik.uni-siegen.de
Abstract: In this paper, we have discussed several critical problems of electronic
measurements on acupuncture system such as the size, shape, location and stability of
acu-points and acu-meridians; the violent fluctuation of the measurement data; the holographic
phenomena and the statistical self-similarity of measurement data; the transmission of signal
along meridian and its speed; the parallel distributions between higher-conductivity points and
higher sound intensity points and the mathematical background of log-normal distribution of
measurement data. A conclusion, which comes from the contradictions between these
experiment results and the existing knowledge in modern anatomy, histology, neurology and
biochemistry, is that there is an invisible dissipative structure of electromagnetic field which is
mainly composed of an interference pattern of standing waves in the resonance cavity of
human body under the condition of permanent support of energy in an open system. To some
extent, the invisible structure is corresponding to the mysterious acupuncture system and closely related to many energetic medicines. The conclusion and recognition of the existence
of the invisible dissipative structure of electromagnetic field inside a body offers not only a
new understanding of the background of acupuncture and many other holistic medicines, but
also a scientific and quantitative way to evaluate the degree of coherence, namely harmony of a
body-mind system.
Keywords: acupuncture; skin resistance; electromagnetic field; standing wave; holography;
dissipative structure; coherence.
Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Zhang, C.L. (2008) ‘Background of
electronic measurement on skin’, Int. J. Modelling, Identification and Control, Vol. 5, No. 3,
pp.181–190.
Biographical notes: Chang Lin Zhang is a Former Professor of Biophysics of Zhejiang
University in China and now Visiting Professor in the University of Siegen in Germany.
Since 1991, he has been working in the scientific background of acupuncture, music therapy,
homeopathy, etc. He found that there is a dynamic dissipative structure of electromagnetic field
in living systems, which could be some common background of many holistic medicines and a
new chapter of physiology. Meanwhile, he also develops a mathematical method to
quantitatively evaluate the degree of coherence in living systems.
1 Introduction: electronic measurement
of acupuncture system
Acupuncture is a living and stubborn challenge to
established scientific knowledge. If acu-meridian and Qi
really exist, the modern scientific views of the body-mind
clearly need to be revised. Therefore, the research in the
mechanism of acupuncture is not only for the
understanding of the old medical method, but also for
the development of modern science itself.
1.1 No anatomic evidence
The first dilemma facing the scientists is that we could not
find the anatomic evidences which might prove the
objective existence of acu-meridian and Qi (Hu et al.,
1990; Kellner, 1966; Kim, 1963). However, the absence of
anatomic evidence does not mean that we can deny the
existence of acupuncture system, which is not only
working, but becoming more and more popular in many
countries nowadays, because of its clinical success
(Bensoussan, 1991; Gerber, 2000; Oschman, 2000).
1.2 Electronic measurement
Besides the clinical success of acupuncture, the electronic
measurement on skin offers a clear objective evidence
which powerfully proves the existence of acupuncture
system even though we could not see it through anatomy.
The electronic measurement of acupuncture system was at first found by German doctor Croon (Croon,1954;
Overhof, 1960) in 1947, then independently found by
Japanese doctor Nakatani (1977) in 1950. Since 1953,
German doctor Voll (1971a,b) spent 40 years to develop it
into a diagnosis system. Today, the Voll-electroacupuncture
and some other similar diagnostic methods
based on electronic measurement on skin have been used
in many countries (Becker et al., 1979; Bensoussan, 1991;
Croon, 1954; Gerber, 2000; Nakatani, 1977; Oschman,
2000; Overhof, 1960; Voll, 1971a,b; Zhang, 1978),
including China, the motherland of acupuncture.
1.3 What is behind the measurement?
However, the point is what is the background of the
electronic measurement.
2 Querying the terminology ‘skin resistance’
Usually, people call the electronic measurement of
acupuncture ‘skin resistance measurement’ (Becker et al.,
1979; Bensoussan, 1991; Croon, 1954; Gerber, 2000;
Nakatani, 1977; Oschman, 2000; Overhof, 1960; Voll,
1971a,b; Zhang, 1978). There are several reasons for using
such a terminology. The first reason is that the
measurement is performed on the skin of patients,
the terminology objectively describes the place where we
perform measurement. The second reason is that the
acupuncture measurement in medicine is almost same as
the resistance measurement in electronics. Therefore,
people think that what we measure on acu-point is also
resistance. The third reason is that the resistance of body
liquid is so small that it is completely negligible in the
precision of clinic measurement. It seems that the reading
of the instrument could only come from the resistance of
skin, nothing else.
However, if we seriously check the terminology,
we will find that there are many puzzling problems which
do not fit into the existing knowledge of anatomy,
histology, physiology, biochemistry and physics. Now, let
us begin our discussion with a series of important experiments.
Experiment 1: How big is the difference of ‘skin
resistance’ between on acu-points and on other
places? And is the difference reliable?
The first question we have to answer is, why is that the
difference in readings between on acu-points and on
non-acu-point-place is so big. The difference of readings
between on acu-points and on non-acu-point-place is
usually 10 times more (see Figures 1–4). Many
experiments (Hu et al., 1990) show that the difference is
almost independent of pressure (see Figures 1 and 2), from
voltage (see Figure 3) and frequency (see Figure 4) of
measurement current as well. Then, a crucial question arises: if the difference
had come from the big difference of skin, should it not be
quite easy to find the big difference of the structures
of skin on acu-points and on non-acu-point-place
through anatomy or histology? Unfortunately, there is no
such evidence.
Figure 1 The relationship between ‘skin resistance’ and
pressure on electrode
Source: From Hu et al. (1990, p.188).
Figure 2 The relationship between ‘skin resistance’ and
pressure on electrode
Source: From Hu et al. (1990, p.189).
Figure 3 The relationship between ‘skin resistance’ and
measurement voltage
Source: From Hu et al. (1990, p.194).
Figure 4 The relationship between ‘skin resistance’ and
frequency of measurement current
Source: From Overhof (1960, p.26).
Experiment 2: The shapes of acu-points and
acu-meridians from the data of so-called ‘skin
resistance’ measurement.
For quite a long time, people believed that acu-meridian
was some pipeline like blood vessel or nerve fibre and
acu-point was something like neuroganglion or some holes
and expected that we would find them through dissection
one day.
Unfortunately, this belief was not proved by anatomy
or histology even after half a century of research. On the
other side, however, the objective existence of acu-points
and acu-meridians is proven by means of electronic
measurement with excellent reproducibility. Then, we have
to ask what on earth the acu-meridians and acu-points look
like from the data of electronic measurement and whether
they are like some invisible pipelines or knots or holes.
From Figure 5, we can see the shapes of two
acu-points measured by the American scientist Becker
et al. (1979), electronically. The two pictures show that the
acu-points are not like some never knots or some holes
with clear boundary, but something like two small and
invisible hills without clear boundary.
The two pictures in Figure 6 are the results of
electronic measurement along the meridian and across the
meridian, respectively from American scientist Backer
et al. (1979) and Chinese scientist Zhang (Hu et al., 1990;
Zhang, 1978). The results show that acu-meridian is not
something like a pipeline with clear boundary, but
something like small and invisible mountains without clear
boundary, but with several small and invisible peaks,
which we call acu-points, on the small and invisible
mountains.
The picture with pseudo-colours in Figure 7 shows a
landscape of conductivity on the skin of a palm. At the
centre of the palm, we find the point with the highest conductivity which is called acu-point ‘Laokung’, which
emits ‘Qi’ according to the theory of acupuncture. There
are other five points with higher conductivity on the
centres of five fingers which are also five important
acu-points.
Figure 5 The shape of acu-points
Source: From Becker et al. (1979, p.166).
Figure 6 The shape of acu-meridians
Source: From Becker et al. (1979, p.165) and
Hu et al. (1990, p.185).
Figure 7 The distribution of conductivity on palm (see online
version for colours)
Source: From the author.
Experiment 3: The movement of acu-meridian and
acu-point on a large scale.
Then, we have to point out that the landscape of
conductivity on skin which has some correlation with
acupuncture system is not a fixed one, but a dynamic one
which would greatly change in some special pathological,
physiological or psychological conditions.
The two pictures in Figure 8 was observed by the
Chinese medical doctor Li (Liu, 1994) in the big project of
‘sensation propagation along meridians’. They show that
the route of ‘sensation propagation’, which are usually
coincident to acu-meridians, can have great change in
some special pathological states.
Figure 8 The big change of the routs of ‘sensation propagation’
in some pathological states
Source: From Liu (1994, p.209).
The important phenomenon can be also objectively
measured electronically. We can see the big difference in
the comparison between the normal distribution of the
so-called ‘skin resistance’ in Figure 7 and the changed
distributions of it in some abnormally pathological,
physiological and psychological states in Figure 9.
In Figure 10, we can see that the so-called ‘skin
resistance’ could even have some quite fast change during
a needling operation as well.
Therefore, the large scale movement of acu-meridians
and acu-points can be both subjectively felt in the
observation of the ‘sensation propagation’ and objectively
measured with electronic instrument.
Figure 9 The big change of resistance on the skin of palms in
various physiological states (see online version for
colours)
Source: From the author.
Figure 10 The instant and continuous change of resistance on
the skin during needling operation (see online
version for colours)
Source: From the author.
The large scale movement of acu-meridians and acu-points
tells us that acupuncture system is not some fixed network
like blood vessel network or nerve fibre network, but
something which is dynamic in structure. In the normal
state of a body-mind system, the structure is relatively
stable. The outline of the relatively stable structure was
somehow discovered by ancient people and roughly
described in the theories of acupuncture and ayurveda as
acu-meridian network and chakras.
Experiment 4: Violent fluctuation of the so-called
‘skin resistance’
It is important to notice that the so-called ‘skin resistance’
would not only have some big change in some
pathological or unusually physiological states, but have
permanent fluctuation in various scales (see Figures 11
and 12), even for healthy persons.
The more precise instrument we use, the bigger
fluctuation we would find in the so-called ‘skin resistance’
measurement. If we use an instrument with very high
sensitivity to measure the so-called ‘skin resistance’
we would find that the reading of the instrument would
be violently fluctuating in very high frequencies
(see Figure 12). Therefore, in the viewpoint of electronics,
skin would be a very bad and unstable resistor.
Figure 11 The large scale of wave-trains of body conductivity
(see online version for colours)
Source: From the author.
Figure 12 The small scale of wave-trains from living system
Source: From Greek physicist
Zioutas (1900) in CERN/LAA.
Experiment 5: Simultaneous and holographic change
of the so-called ‘skin resistance’
It is worth further noticing not only that the so-called ‘skin
resistance’ would change in various states of a body-mind
system and in various time, but also that the so-called ‘skin
resistance’ on all related acu-points in a body
simultaneously change.
What makes the problem even more complicated is
that the synchronous change of the so-called ‘skin
resistance’, when a patient is ill, could not only be found
on all main corresponding acu-points on the acu-meridian
network, but also on all microacu-points on ear, nose,
palm, foot, etc. In other words, the change of the so-called
‘skin resistance’ is ‘holographic’ or ‘fractal’.
Figure 13 Simultaneous and holographic change of body conductivity
The holographic change of the so-called ‘skin
resistance’ happens not only on the level of ordinary
acu-points and microacu-points, but also on any point on
skin. That is, whenever the body-mind system has some
change, the shapes of probability distributions of electronic
measurement data synchronously change and keep similar
patterns in different places and in different scales
(see Figure 13). This phenomenon is called ‘statistic
self-similarity’.
Experiment 6: The speed of ‘sensation propagation’
and the related change of the so-called ‘skin
resistance’
Another interesting phenomenon of acupuncture system is
the slow movement of ‘sensation propagation’ which can
also be monitored by a series of electrodes on skin.
Another very interesting and important phenomenon is
that the speed (slower than 40 cm/sec) of the ‘sensation
propagation’ (see Figure 14) and the change of the pattern
of the so-called ‘skin resistance’ is much slower than the
speed of signal transmission (20–120 cm/sec) in nerve
fibre. Obviously, the phenomenon cannot be explained by
the nerve system.
Figure 14 Speed distribution of sensation propagation
Source: From Hu et al. (1990, p.47).
Experiment 7: Acu-meridians as channels of
electromagnetic waves.
The Chinese physicist Zhang (Hu et al., 1990; Zhang,
1961) found that the acu-meridian is a good channel for
microwaves of 1359 MHz. He not only made experimental
research, but also postulated that the acu-meridian is some
kind of ‘wave guide’ in which the slow speed of signal
comes from the ‘group speed of waves’. This is the best
explanation about the slow speed of signal transmitted in
acu-meridian among decades of various hypotheses about
the mechanism of acupuncture. It is really great that Zhang
had such a brilliant ideal of ‘group speed of waves’ in
acupuncture system in the 1959, long before the
recognition of the dissipative structure in scientific
community.
It is also well-known that many medical doctors in
western countries who performed soft-laser acupuncture
also found that acu-meridian is also a good channel for
laser beams. Therefore, acu-meridian is a channel of
electromagnetic waves.
Experiment 8: Acu-meridians as channels of
acoustic waves.
Another Chinese physicist (Hu et al., 1990; Sun et al.,
1988) found the high similarity and coincidence
between the higher sound intensity points and
meridian on human body (see Figure 15). The result
reveals that acu-meridian is also a good channel for
acoustic waves.
Figure 15 The accoustic measurement along an acu-meridian
Source: From Hu et al. (1990, p.201).
Experiment 9: Lower resistance points and higher
sound intensity points after amputation.
For a long time, many people wondered whether
acupuncture system exists or not after death. The Chinese biophysicist Zhu et al. (1989) observed the lower
resistance points and the higher sound intensity points
after amputation. The result shows that the lower
resistance points almost keep in their original places after
amputation (see Figure 16).
Figure 16 The lower resistance points (the blue) and the higher
sound intensity points (the red) on a leg after
amputation (see online version for colours)
Source: From Zhu et al. (1989, p.326).
Experiment 10: The lower resistance points and the
higher sound intensity points on the surface
of plants.
Zhu et al. (1989) not only measured the lower resistance
points and the higher sound intensity points on the legs
after amputation, but made a lot of measurements on the
surfaces on various animals and plants. The results show
that the distributions of lower resistance points and the
higher sound intensity points on the surfaces of animals
and plants are highly similar (see Figures 17 and 18).
Figure 17 The lower resistance points (the blue) and the
higher sound intensity points (the red) on the
surface of a rabbit (see online version for colours)
Source: From Zhu et al. (1989, p.320).
Figure 18 The lower resistance points (the blue) and the higher
sound intensity points (the red) on the surface of a
watermelon (see online version for colours)
Source: From Zhu et al. (1989, p.323).
It is worth noticing that the lower resistance points and the
higher sound intensity points on the surface of a
watermelon, which is almost a perfect spheroid, are
scattered along the lines of longitude and latitude of the
spheroid. This is the phenomenon and characteristic of
interference pattern in a ball-like resonance cavity.
3 Behind the measurements
The exploration of the background behind the so-called
‘skin resistance’ measurement is a big challenge to
biologists and physicists. In some way, it is quite like the
situation of seismologists when they explore what is inside
earth. Both explore what is inside a body, but are not
allowed to open it.
Of course, there is a little difference. The problem for
seismologists is that they are unable to open the earth in
order to see what is inside; whereas the problem for
biologists is that they have opened the human body and
studied it thoroughly and saw nothing related to
acupuncture system, though they have electronically got
some mysterious signal on the surface of the body.
Therefore, both of them have to explore what is inside
from the careful analysis of the data which were measured
on their surfaces.
3.1 Peeling off the skin
Japanese physiologist Motoyama (1977) experimented by
peeling off the horny layer from skin and found that only
30% contribution of reading of electronic measurement
comes from the horny layer and 70% from somewhere
beneath or behind the horny layer.
Motoyama assumed that the 70% contribution comes
from the polarisation of the tissue beneath the skin and
near the measurement electrode. However, the problem for
the polarisation explanation is that the change of the
so-called ‘skin resistance’ is not a local event which could
be simply induced by a measurement electrode, but an
holographic change on all the points on the surface of the
body.
Many other physiologists assumed that the change of
the so-called ‘skin resistance’ comes from the activity of
nerve system or blood capillary. However, the problem for
the explanation of the activity of nerve system or blood capillary is that both the nerve system and the blood
circulation system are completely immersed in the body
fluid, whose resistance is so small that the change of nerve
system or blood capillary plays almost no roll in such a
measurement. It seems that it is really difficult to avoid the
words ‘skin resistance’ since only the skin has enough
resistance.
3.2 Conductivity versus resistance
Now, let us try to change the way we think a little bit in
order to ask another more fundamental question such as
what on earth is ‘resistance’.
Literally, the word ‘resistance’ means something which
resists measurement current. Unfortunately, it is not the
real case, in the viewpoint of electrodynamics (Purcell,
1965), the resistance (R) is the inverse of conductivity (J)
which is the ability which allows electrons to go. And the
conductivity is proportional to electrical field (E), namely
here σ is a constant characteristic of the substance.
Therefore, ‘what we measure on the skin of a body is
actually the conductivity for the measurement current,
which is proportional to electrical field inside the body’.
3.3 Acupuncture system and heterogeneous
distribution of electromagnetic field.
In order to make this question more clear, let us measure
an ideal human body, which is an ideal cuboid described in
Figure 19. In such an ideal situation, the two measurement
electrodes can be regarded as two big flat ones which press
on the ideal cuboid body from both sides, since we usually
use constant measurement voltage.
Figure 19 The background of electronic measurement
(see online version for colours)
In such a highly simplified picture, we can see clearly that
what we measured is in fact a heterogeneous distribution
of electrical field inside the body. In the comparison
between Figure 18 and the pictures in Figures 5–7, we can
find that the acu-meridians are some lines with higher
strength of electrical field and the acu-points are actually
some places with the highest strength of electrical field.
In the viewpoint of Figure 19, we can also find the real
skin resistance on the surface of the ideal body is actually
only a disturbance for such a electronic measurement.
What makes it even worse is that ‘the real skin resistance
not only disturbs the measurement results, but the
so-called ‘skin resistance measurement’ misled the
direction of the basic research on the mechanism of
acupuncture for almost half a century’.
3.4 The source of the heterogeneous distribution of
electromagnetic field inside a body
Now, we can finally ask where the heterogeneous
distribution of electromagnetic field comes from. From
Figures 6 and 7, in particular 5, it is easy to see that ‘the
heterogeneous distribution of conductivity is the image of
an interference pattern’ (Zhang, 1995, 2000). The
interference pattern is composed of electromagnetic waves,
which, even from the existing knowledge of physiology,
comes from many organs, tissues and cells. The relatively
stable interference pattern is mainly composed of
electromagnetic standing waves in the resonance cavity of
the human body or the bodies of many other living
systems.
As a matter of fact, the interference pattern of
electromagnetic waves inside a human body is of
dissipative structure, which is relatively stable as long as
the energy support in the body is stable. At the same time,
it is a very dynamic structure. This is the reason why there
are such big fluctuations in various frequencies, we can
observe the same (see Figures 11 and 12) if we use some
instruments with high sensitivity.
As soon as the energy support or the boundary
condition of the resonance cavity changes, namely, the
human body has some pathological, physiological or
psychological change, the shape of the interference pattern
would also change. This is the simple reason why
acu-points and acu-meridians would greatly change their
places in some unusual physiological or psychological
states (see Figures 8–10).
It is well-known that holographic phenomenon is a
basic characteristic of any interference pattern. In the
viewpoint of interference pattern, the holographic
phenomenon of acupuncture system is no a longer
puzzling problem.
In the viewpoint of interference pattern both
electromagnetic wave and acoustic waves have the
capability to produce interference pattern. This is the
simple reason why there is similarity and parallelism
between the lower points and the higher sound intensity
points on the surfaces of human body and the bodies of
other living systems.
In the viewpoint of interference pattern, the slow speed
of the ‘sensation propagation’ or the change of so-called
‘skin resistance’ can easily be explained with the ‘group
speed’ of waves in the wave guide, which is a part of
interference pattern.
And in the viewpoint of interference pattern, the
pattern can also exist in a dead body or any other bodies
like fruits or plants as long as they are resonance cavities
with constant support of energy (notice that the
measurement current itself can also be a source of energy
support).
In this viewpoint, we would have a completely new
understanding of the puzzling effect of acupuncture
needling without chemical remedy involved. The metal
needle is a good new boundary condition to be introduced
into a body in order to change the interference pattern in it.
If the metal needle is just introduced in some decisive place, it would be able to greatly change the interference
pattern. The decisive place is usually on the point with the
highest strength of electromagnetic field where many
peaks of electromagnetic standing waves are put together.
3.5 The relationship between the inner
electromagnetic field and outside radiation
In the viewpoint of electromagnetic field, it is also easy to
understand why there is such a high coincidence between
the acu-meridian and the discharge pattern under
high voltage and high frequency (Li et al., 1985)
(see Figure 20), since the discharge pattern is closely
related the distribution of electromagnetic field in
the body.
Figure 20 The discharge pattern along meridian
Source: From Hu et al. (1990, p.194).
In the viewpoint of electromagnetic field, there must be
some relationship between the inner electromagnetic field
in living systems and the outside radiation. They are at
least, a part of mysterious aura which have been described
in many religions as something which is holy, though it is
not holy at all since everybody has it and we can measure
it easily with instruments today (Gulyaev and Godik,
1987; Rossmann et al., 1986; Sachs, 1969; Warnke, 1973)
(see Figure 21).
Figure 21 The thermograph around a human body (the left)
and the distribution of the strength of electrical
field around an insect (the right) (see online version
for colours)
Source: From Bischof (1995, p.286) and
Warnke (1973).
3.6 Mathematical background of the statistical
behaviour of measurement data.
German mathematician Sachs (1969) found that the data
from many physiological system fits into ‘log-normal
distribution’ (see Figure 22) instead of ‘normal
distribution’ which widely exist in many non-living
systems. German medical doctor Rossmann et al. (1986)
found that the data of the so-called ‘skin resistance
measurement’ on acu-points also fit into ‘log-normal
distribution’, instead of ‘normal distribution’.
Figure 22 The shape and the formula of ‘log-normal
distribution’ (see online version for colours)
The author (Zhang, 1995) of this paper found that the data
of the so-called ‘skin resistance’ on any point of the skin of
a body fit into the ‘log-normal distribution’ as long as the
tested person is in ordinary state and the ‘statistical selfsimilarity’
of measurement data on different places and
various scales (see Figure 13) when the tested persons are
in abnormal states or in big disturbances. The author
(Zhang et al., 1994) also proved with combination
mathematics that the background of the ‘log-normal
distribution’ is that the elements in the measured system
are independent from others and at the same time keep all
possibilities of cooperating with others as well. In other
words, the data which fits into ‘log-normal distribution’
comes from a system that is in coherence in harmony
(see Figure 23).
Figure 23 The backgrounds of ‘delta distribution’ (the upper)
‘normal distribution’ (the middle) and ‘log-normal
distribution’ (the lower)
In the viewpoint of electrodynamics, when the data from
the so-called the ‘skin resistance measurement’ fit into
‘log-normal distribution’, it means that the data, which is
measured from the surface of an interference pattern,
comes from the superposition of many standing waves that
were emitted from those oscillators, which go through so
many right ways of coupling that every oscillator emits not
only its eigen frequency, but also many beating frequencies
out of the couplings with other oscillators (Zhang, 1995,Zhang et al., 1994). In such a case, the frequency spectrum
would change from ‘write noise’ to ‘1/f noise’, in which
the energy moves from the range of the higher frequencies
to the lower frequencies.
The detail of the mathematical proof has published by
the author (Zhang et al., 1994) in Britain in 1994. As a
matter of fact, the mathematical proof was a very
important and decisive step in the recognition of the
‘invisible rainbow and inaudible music’ – the dissipative
structure of electromagnetic field in our bodies.
3.7 The rough picture of the invisible dissipative
structure
Finally, let us stop our hard rational discussion with
physiology, physics and mathematics to see a nice painting
(see Figure 24) by which the American artist Grey (1990)
vividly described the ‘invisible rainbow and inaudible
music’ in and around a human body.
Figure 24 A brief description of the dissipative structure of
electro-magnetic field in and around a body
(see online version for colours)
Source: From Bischof (1995, p.286).
In this painting, we can roughly see the outline of the
dissipative structure of electromagnetic field in and around
a body, which obviously includes some knowledge from
acupuncture, charkas and aura which came from the
experience and intuition of ancient people. Though there
must be many errors in such a primitive recognition, it can
still be a perceivable reference image for serious scientific
researchers who are exploring the details of the invisible
and dynamic dissipative structure.
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